Все фотографии и иллюстрации в этой книге принадлежат Грэхаму Скарру, если не указано иное.
Рисунок 1.1. OBMOKhU exhibition, 1921, Moscow. Public domain; reproduced from Gough, M., 2005. The Artist as Producer: Russian Constructivism in Revolution. London: University of California Press.
Рисунок 1.3. Spatial construction by Karl Ioganson 1920–1921. Public domain; copy from Viacheslav Koleichuk, reproduced from Gough, M., 2005. The Artist as Producer: Russian Constructivism in Revolution. London: University of California Press
Рисунок 1.4. Superstar by Kenneth Snelson. © Graham Scarr, 2012, courtesy of Stephen M. Levin
Рисунок 1.8. Montreal Biosphere. Reproduced from © Martin, D.-C., 2016. Living Biotensegrity: Interplay of Tension and Compression in the Body, Munich: Kiener, with permission
Рисунок 2.1. Triangulated hexagons. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.3B. Basalt hexagons, Giant’s Causeway, Northern Ireland. Reproduced from © Chmee2, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Giant%27s_Causeway#/media/ File: Giant%27s_Causeway_(14).JPG.
Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
Рисунок 2.4A. Uroplakin plaques. Reproduced from NanoBiotechnology, 1(1), Sanner, M.F., Stolz, M., Burkhard, P., Kong, X-P., Min, G., Sun, T-T., Driamov, S., Aebi, U. and Stoffler, D.
Visualizing nature at work from the nano to the macro scale, pp.7-21, © 2005, with permission from Humana Press Inc.
Рисунок 2.4B. Parabronchi. Reproduced from Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 155(1), Maina, J.N., Spectacularly robust! Tenseg— rity principle explains the mechanical strength of the avian lung, pp. 1-10, © 2007, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 2.7. Tetrahedra. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.9. Tetrahelices. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.10. Tetrahedra with octahedra. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.11A и B. Octahedra. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.11D. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 14(4), Scarr, G., Simple geometry in complex organisms, pp. 424-44, © 2010, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 2.12. Octet truss. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.13A. Cube lattice. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.13B. Pyrite crystals. © Graham Scarr, 2013, courtesy of Don Edwards
Рисунок 2.13C-E. Cube lattice in section. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.14. Cuboctahedra. © Rory James, 2013. DarkLight Photography
Рисунок 2.15. Icosahedra. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.16A. Human sapoviruses. Reproduced from © Graham Colm, Wikipedia; https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapovirus#/media/ File: Caliciviruses2.jpg. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Unported license
Рисунок 2.16B. Circogonia icosahedra. Public domain; reproduced from Wikipedia; Zoology,
XVIII, Haeckel, E. 1887. Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiolaria#/ media/File: Circogoniaicosahedra_ekw.jpg
Рисунок 2.16C. Morning Glory pollen (Ipomoea purpurea) x 500. Public domain; reproduced from Dartmouth electron microscope facility, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Pollen#/media/File: Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg
Рисунок 2.17A. Cobaltite. Reproduced courtesy of © Dan Weinrich. https://www.weinrichminer— alsinc.com
Рисунок 2.17C. Ho-Mg-Zn quasicrystal. Public domain; reproduced from Ames Lab,
U.S. Department of Energy, Wikipedia; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File: Ho-Mg-ZnQuasicrystal.jpg
Рисунок 2.18. Jitterbug. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 2.19. Jitterbug (lattices). © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.1. Tensegrity prisms. © Rory James, 2013.Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.2. Tensegrity helix. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.3B. Tensegrity icosahedron. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.4A. Tensegrity icosahedron with ‘tension triangles.’ © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.4B & C. Hoberman sphere. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.5A. 12-strut icosahedron/tensegrity. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.5B. 30-strut tensegrity icosahedron. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.6. Tensegrity icosahedra stretch/compres— sion. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.7A. Tensegrity hierarchical node. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.7B. Six-strut tensegrity hierarchy. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.8. Muscle heterarchy. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 14(4), Scarr, G., Simple geometry in complex organisms, pp. 424-44, © 2010, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 3.10. IVM with emerging octahedra. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 3.11. Tensegrity models of the human spine and leg. Reproduced courtesy of © T. Flemons, 2006. http://www.intensiondesigns.com/
Рисунок 4.6. Planar four-bar mechanics. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 21(3), Levin, S.M., Lowell de Solórzano, S. and Scarr, G., The significance of closed kinematic chains to biological movement and dynamic stability, pp. 664–672, © 2017, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 4.7A. Strandbeest by Theo Jansen. Reproduced courtesy of © Theo Jansen
Рисунок 4.7B. Strandbeest model. © Graham Scarr, 2013, courtesy of Theo Jansen
Рисунок 4.8A. Four-bar tensegrity heterarchy. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 4.8B. T-icosa kinematics. © Rory James, 2013 Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 5.1. Endothelial cells. Public domain; reproduced from Wikipedia; https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton#/ media/File: FluorescentCells.jpg
Рисунок 5.2. T-icosa with similar nucleus. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 5.3A. Geodesic forms in cytoskeleton. Reproduced courtesy of © Donald E. Ingber, Scholarpedia. http://www.scholarpedia. org/article/File: Geodesic_forms_in_ cytoskeleton.jpg
Рисунок 5.7. Epithelial cells showing the tensegrity ‘cell state splitter.’ Redrawn from Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling, 13, Gordon, N.K. and Gordon, R., The organelle of differentiation in embryos: the cell state splitter, 10 March 2016, 13:11, © Gordon and Gordon, 2016. Open Access. Distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Рисунок 5.9. Cell movement. Reproduced from International Review of Cytology, 150, Ingber, D.E., Dike, L., Hansen, L., Karp, S., Liley, H., Maniotis, A., McNamee, H., Mooney, D., Plopper, G., Sims, J. and Wang, N. Cellular tensegrity: exploring how mechanical changes in the cytoskeleton regulate cell growth, migration and tissue pattern during morphogenesis, pp. 173–224, © 1994, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 6.1A, C и D. Tetrahedron and T6-helix. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 6.3. Helical molecules in the cellular cytoskeleton. Redrawn from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 14(4), Scarr, G., Simple geometry in complex organisms, pp. 424–444, © 2010, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 6.4. Spectrin heterarchy. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 14(4), Scarr, G., Simple geometry in complex organisms, pp. 424–444, © 2010, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 6.5. Collagen heterarchy. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 14(4), Scarr, G., Simple geometry in complex organisms, pp. 424–444, © 2010, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 6.6. Tetrahelical core of tropocollagen. © Rory James, 2017. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 6.7. T-icosa chain. © Rory James, 2017. DarkLight Photography
Рисунок 6.8. Tube bending. © Rory James, 2013. DarkLight Photography
Рисунок 6.9. Crossed-helices. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 20(3), Scarr, G., Fascial hierarchies and the relevance of crossed-helical arrangements of collagen to changes in the shape of muscles, pp. 377–387, © 2016, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 6.10. Crossed-helical arrangements. Reproduced with modifications from International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 16, Scarr, G., Palpatory phenomena in the limbs: a proposed mechanism, pp. 114–120, © 2013, with permission from Elsevier.
Рисунок 6.13B. Pangolin. Reproduced from International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 16, Scarr, G., Palpatory phenomena in the limbs: a proposed mechanism, pp. 114–120, © 2013, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 7.1A. Human skeleton. Public domain; reproduced from De Humani Corpora Fabrica, Vesalius, A. 1543; U.S. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland
Рисунок 7.1B. Lever drawings. Public domain; reproduced from De Motu Animalium, Borelli, G.A., 1680; U.S. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland
Рисунок 7.6. Closed kinematic chains in bicycle wheel. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 15, Scarr, G. and Harrison, H. Examining the temporomandibular joint from a biotensegrity perspective: a change in thinking, pp. 55–62, © 2017, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 7.7. Trampoline Club du Dauphiné: Éleonore Lachaud and Clara Guinard performing in 2007. Reproduced from © Trampoline club Dauphine, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Gymnastics#/media/File: Acro-tcd. JPG. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license
Рисунок 7.9. Arthroscopic views of the knee. Reproduced with modifications from http:// www.biotensegrity.com/resources/in-vivo— obs-knee.pdf, courtesy of © Stephen M. Levin
Рисунок 8.1B. Wire tensegrity model of cranial vault. © G.Scarr, 2016, courtesy of Helen Harrison
Рисунок 8.2. Geometric origin of cranial vault model. Reproduced with modifications from International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 11, Scarr, G., A model of the cranial vault as a tensegrity structure, and its significance to normal and abnormal cranial development, pp. 80–89, © 2008, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 8.3. Role of dural membrane tension. Reproduced with modifications from International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 11, Scarr, G., A model of the cranial vault as a tensegrity structure, and its significance to normal and abnormal cranial development, pp. 80–89, © 2008, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 8.7. Sections of TMJ. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 14, Scarr, G. and Harrison, H., Resolving the problems and controversies surrounding temporo-mandibular mechanics, pp. 177–185, © 2016., with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 8.8. Anatomy related to the TMJ. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 14, Scarr, G. and Harrison, H., Resolving the problems and controversies surrounding temporo-mandibular mechanics, pp. 177–185, © 2016, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 8.9. Four-bar geometry in limbs of horse and human. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 21(3), Levin, S.M., Lowell de Solórzano, S. and Scarr, G., The significance of closed kinematic chains to biological movement and dynamic stability, pp. 664–672, © 2017, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 9.6. Curved-strut tensegrity heterarchies. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 9.7. Curved-strut tensegrity. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 9.8. Penrose tiling. Redrawn from © Tovrstra, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen— rose_tiling#/media/File: Penrose_sun_3.svg
Рисунок 10.12B. T-12 prism. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 10.12C. Tensegrity model. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 10.14A. Klein bottle drawing. Reproduced with modifications from © Tttrung, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_bot— tle#/media/File: Klein_bottle.svg. Licensed under the Creative Commons AttributionShare Alike 3.0 Unported license
Рисунок 10.14B. Tensegrity Klein bottle. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок 11.1. Dissection of the leg. Courtesy of © John Sharkey, Clinical Anatomist, 2017
Рисунок 11.2. Fibers within the fascial extracellular matrix. Reproduced from Architecture of Human Living Fascia, © Guimberteau, J.C. and Armstrong, C., Edinburgh: Handspring Publishing, 2015, with permission
Рисунок 11.4. Extensor tendon network. Redrawn from Valero-Cuevas et al., 2007 and reproduced from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 21(3), Levin, S.M., Lowell de Solórzano, S. and Scarr, G. The significance of closed kinematic chains to biological movement and dynamic stability, pp. 664–672, © 2017, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок 11.5. Leosvel and Diosmani Cuban artists and the Chinese Pole, Grenoble. Reproduced from © Ludovic Péron, 2011, Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_ pole#/media/File: Leosvel_et_Diosmani_ — _4.jpg. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike3.0 Unported license
Рисунок 12.2. Bouncing tensegrity sphere. Courtesy of © Gerald de Jong, 2010
Рисунок 12.3. Super Ball Bot. NASA Ames/Eric James. Research performed by Vytas SunSpiral, Adrian Agogino, and George Gorospe of NASA Ames — the Dynamic Tensegrity Robotics Lab; Jonathan Bruce of UC Santa Cruz; Drew Sabelhaus and Alice Agogino of UC Berkeley; Atil Iscen of Oregon State University; George Korbel, Sophie Milam, Kyle Morse, and David Atkinson of the University of Idaho; model built by Ken Caluwaerts of Ghent University. https://www.nasa.gov/ multimedia/guidelines/index
Рисунок 12.4A. Siberian tiger. Reproduced from © Malene Thysson, 2004, Wikipedia;https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Siberian_Tiger_by_ Malene_Th.jpg. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license
Рисунок 12.4C. Flamenco dancer. Reproduced from © Tony Hisgett, 2011, Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File: Flamenco_Dancer_2_(5514546691). jpg. Licensed under the Creative
CommonsAttribution 2.0 Generic license.
Страница 143. Tower of interlinked T-icosa. Reproduced courtesy of © Chris Clancy, 2017
Рисунок A1.1. T-icosa. © Rory James, 2013. Dark-Light Photography
Рисунок A2.1. Graph showing relationship between tube volume and fiber angle. Reproduced with modifications from Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 20, Scarr, G., Fascial hierarchies and the relevance of crossed— helical arrangements of collagen to changes in the shape of muscles, pp. 377–387, © 2016, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок A4.1. A cross-section through the thorax of a bird. Redrawn from Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 155(1), Maina, J.N., Spectacularly robust! Tensegrity principle explains the mechanical strength of the avian lung, pp. 1-10, © 2007, with permission from Elsevier
Рисунок A5.1C. Slightly different shapes (e.g. fish jaw morphologies) with the same mechanical functions (KT). Redrawn from American Naturalist, 165, Alfaro, M.E., Bolnick, D.I. and Wainwright, P.C., Evolutionary consequences of many-to-one mapping of jaw morphology to mechanics in labrid fishes, pp. E140-E154, © 2005, with permission from University of Chicago Press.